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I Will See U Again in Apache Language

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Language

Western Apache
Ndee biyáti' / Nnee biyáti'
Native to U.s.a.
Region Primarily south-due east Arizona
Ethnicity Western Apache

Native speakers

 xiii,445 (65% of pop.) (2013)[1]

Linguistic communication family

Dené–Yeniseian

  • Na-Dené
    • Athabaskan–Eyak
      • Athabaskan
        • Southern
          • Southwestern
            • Western Apache
Language codes
ISO 639-3 apw
Glottolog west2615
ELP Western Apache
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you lot may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Western Apache language is a Southern Athabaskan language spoken among the fourteen,000 Western Apaches in east central Arizona. In that location are approximately 6,000 speakers living on the San Carlos Reservation and 7,000 living on the Ft. Apache Reservation.[two] Goodwin (1938) claims that Western Apache can exist divided into five dialect groupings:

  • Cibecue
  • Northern Tonto
  • Southern Tonto
  • San Carlos
  • White Mountain

Other researchers do not observe any linguistic evidence for five groups but rather 3 main varieties with several subgroupings:

  • San Carlos
  • White Mount
  • Tonto

Western Apache is most closely related to other Southern Athabaskan languages like Navajo, Chiricahua Apache, Mescalero Apache, Lipan Apache, Plains Apache, and Jicarilla Apache.

In 2011, the San Carlos Apache Tribe's Language Preservation Plan in Peridot, Arizona, began its outreach to the "xiv,000 tribal members residing inside the districts of Bylas, Gilson Wash, Peridot and Seven Mile Wash,"[3] only 20% of whom still speak the language fluently.[4]

Place names [edit]

Many Western Apache place names that are currently in apply are believed to be creations of Apache ancestors.[v] Keith Basso, a prominent Western Apache linguist, writes that the ancestors frequently traveled for food, and the demand to call back specific places was "facilitated past the invention of hundreds of descriptive placenames that were intended to describe their referents in close and exact particular."[5] Basso also writes that identify names provide descriptions of specific locations and also "positions for viewing these locations."[v] The identify names are a central aspect of Western Apache communication, allowing for what Basso describes every bit an cribbing of "mythic significance" for "specialized social ends" via the do of "speaking with names."[5]

Place names tin be descriptive or commemorative or a means of identifying clans. Social groups will ofttimes utilise place names every bit a way to communicate. For instance, they use identify names to explicate what happened to them: if there is a story linked to the location, they can relate to it or use it as a warning. That utilise of place names is known in the culture as "shooting with stories," as they shoot one another with stories like arrows of information.[6]

Grammar [edit]

Western Apache uses a classificatory verb system comparable to both the Jicarilla and Mescalero Apaches. Basso gives this case: "the stems –tii and –'a are used in the phrases nato sentii and nato sen'a both of which may be translated broadly as "paw (me) the tobacco." The difference in meaning between the two verb forms is signaled by their stems: --tii refers to the handling of a unmarried, elongated object (e.g., a cigarette), while –'a refers to the handling of a single, meaty object (due east.thou., a packet of cigarettes). In short, the referent of the noun nato ("tobacco") is made more precise according to the stem with which it is coupled."[7]

The utilise of classificatory verbs is similar to that of nouns: the speaker must select an expression that corresponds to the state of affairs in the world he wishes to refer to. The speaker must place specific objects into categories and utilize the appropriate verb form in accordance with the detail category. Basso gives these examples of classifications for the Western Apache verb organisation:

  1. Animal/Non-animal. In that location are two features on this dimension: "brute" and "non-animal." The former, designated past the symbol (a1) includes all vertebrates and insects. The latter, designated (a2), includes flora, liquids, minerals, and practically all items of material civilisation.
  2. Enclosure. There are ii features on this dimension. The kickoff (bl) refers to the condition whereby the item or object existence talked almost is enclosed in a container. The 2d (b2) refers to the condition whereby it is non enclosed, i.eastward., non in a container.
  3. State. At that place are three features on this dimension: "solid" (c1), "plastic" (c2), and "liquid" (c3). The second feature refers to moist, plastic substances such equally mud, wet clay, etc., and might also have been defined as "neither solid nor liquid."
  4. Number. At that place are three features on this dimension: "one" (d1), "two" (d2), and "more than two" (d3).
  5. Rigidity. There are 2 features on this dimension: "rigid" (e1), and "non-rigid" (e2). The Apache consider an object to be rigid (nkliz) if, when held at its edge or finish, information technology does not bend.
  6. Length. At that place are 2 features on this dimension. The outset (f1), refers to the condition whereby the horizontal length of an object is at to the lowest degree three times greater than either its width of summit. The 2nd feature (f2) refers to the condition whereby the length of an object is less than three times its width or height.
  7. Portability. There are 2 features on this dimension: "portable" (g1) and "non-portable" (g2). The old refers to items low-cal enough in weight to exist easily carried by one person. The latter refers to items sufficiently heavy to require at least ii people to carry them.[seven]

Phonology [edit]

Consonants [edit]

At that place are 31 consonants in Western Apache:

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
plain sibilant lateral
Nasal thousand northward
Stop voiced (ⁿd/d)
voiceless p t ts tɬ tʃ k ʔ
aspirated tʰ tsʰ tɬʰ tʃʰ kʰ
ejective tʼ tsʼ tɬʼ tʃʼ kʼ
Fricative voiceless s ɬ ʃ x h
voiced z ʒ ɣ
Approximant 50 j due west

Vowels [edit]

In that location are sixteen vowels in Western Apache:

Front Central Back
short long brusque long short long
Shut oral ɪ iː
nasal ɪ̃ ĩː
Open-mid oral ɛ ɛː o oː
nasal ɛ̃ ɛ̃ː õ õː
Open oral a aː
nasal ã ãː

An acute emphasis /á/ represents a loftier toned accent. Low toned accents are not marked.

Phonetic Semantic signs are divided into two sub-parts: a logographs[8] (donate simply one word) and phraseographs (donate one or more words).

Unaffricated stops [edit]

Western Apache utilizes unaffricated stops. Willem de Reuse explains, "Unaffricated cease consonants are produced in three locations: bilabial, alveolar, velar. At the alveolar and velar places of articulation, there are 3 possibilities: aspirated, ejective, and unaspirated. (The voiceless unaspirated alveolars are characteristically realized as taps in intervocalic environments other than stem-initial position) The bilabial stops are more than restricted. Ejective bilabial stops do not occur, and aspirated bilabial stops are rarely attested, surfacing primarily, if not exclusively, in borrowed words. The closure for three alveolar stops is voiceless, as indicated by the absence of any free energy in the spectrograms during the closure phase."[9]

Writing system [edit]

Partial paradigm of one of the pictographs on the encompass of Basso'southward Western Apache language and civilisation.

The only writing system native to Western Apache is a system of symbols created in 1904 by Silas John Edwards to tape 62 prayers that he believed came to him from sky.[10] A Silas John prayer-text is a set of graphic symbols written on buckskin or paper. The symbols are bundled in horizontal lines which are read from left to right in descending society. Symbols are separated past a space, and each symbol corresponds to a single line of prayer, which may consist of a word, a phrase, or one or more sentences.[x] An interesting feature of this writing system is that it includes symbols for nonverbal deportment as well as exact speech.[10]

Symbols can either exist "compound" or "not-chemical compound". Compound symbols consist of ii symbols beingness combined in club to form a new symbol. Not-chemical compound symbols are symbols that are not combination of two separate symbols.[10] The "names" of non-compound symbols are the same every bit the line of text that the symbols elicit. Because of this, the linguistic referent of a non-compound symbol is always the aforementioned every bit the meaning of the element that forms it and can exist learned in a single performance.[10]

Alphabet and pronunciation [edit]

Western Apache uses a modified version of the Latin alphabet:

Letters ʼ – Ł ʼ A B Ch Chʼ D Dl Dz E Yard Gh H I J Chiliad Kʼ L Ł
IPA equivalent ʔ a p tʃʰ tʃʔ t tɬ ts ɛ chiliad ɣ ten ɪ dʒ kʰ kʔ l ɬ
Written oʼiʼán acha bésh chizh chʼah dǫ́ʼ dlǫ́ʼ dził eʼilzaa gaagé ighál hashbidí izee jaasíláhá kee kʼaa iloh łóg
IPA pronunciation oʔɪʔán atʃʔa pɛ́ʃ tʃʰɪʒ tʃʼax tṍʔ tɬṍʔ tsɪɬ ɛʔɪlzaː kaːkɛ́ ɪɣál xaʃpɪtɪ́ ɪzɛː dʒaːsɪ́láxá kʰɛː kʼaː ɪlox ɬók
Pregnant hole ax knife wood lid wing bird mountain motion picture crow bells quail medicine earings shoe bullets thread fish
Letters M – Zh Yard N O P Due south Sh T Tʼ Tł Tłʼ Ts Tsʼ U W Y Z Zh
IPA equivalent m n o pʰ s ʃ tʰ tʔ tɬʰ tɬʔ tsʰ tsʔ u w j z ʒ
Written mbá nadą́ʼ oyeeł piishi silaada shash tús itʼoh tłád / ikʼah tłʼoh tséé tsʼaał tú iwoo yoo zas zhaali
IPA pronunciation mpá natã́ ojɛːɬ pʰɪːʃɪ sɪlaːta ʃaʃ tʰús ɪtʼox tɬʰát / ɪkʰʔax tɬʼox tsʰɛ́ː tsʼaːɬ tʰú ɪwoː joː zas ʒaːlɪ
Significant coyote corn bear eat soldier conduct jug nest oil plants stone cradleboard h2o teeth beads snow money
Characters aa ą á ą́ ąą é ę ę́ ęę í į į́ įį ó ǫ ǫǫ ǫ́ ú
IPA equivalent aː ã á ã́ ãː ɛ́ ɛ̃ ɛ̃́ ɛ̃ː ɪ́ ɪ̃ ɪ̃́ ɪ̃ː ó õ õː ṍ ú

Usage [edit]

The geographic locations of events are crucial components to whatever Western Apache story or narrative.[v] All Western Apache narratives are spatially anchored to points upon the land, with precise depictions of specific locations, which is feature of many Native American languages.[8] [v] Basso called the exercise of focusing on places in the language "speaking with names."[v]

According to Basso, the Western Apache exercise of "speaking with names" expresses functional range and versatility. Basso claims that "a description of a place may be understood to accomplish all of the following actions:

  1. produce a mental image of a particular geographical location;
  2. evoke prior texts, such as historical tales and sagas;
  3. affirm the value and validity of traditional moral precepts (i.e., ancestral wisdom);
  4. display tactful and courteous attending to aspects of both positive and negative face;
  5. convey sentiments of charitable concern and personal back up;
  6. offer practical advice for dealing with disturbing personal circumstances (i.e., use ancestral wisdom);
  7. transform pitiful thoughts caused by excessive worry into more than agreeable ones marked by optimism and hopefulness;
  8. heal wounded spirits."[5]

Basso also claims the practice of "speaking with names" tin can occur only between those with shared "knowledge of the aforementioned traditional narratives."[v] He notes that though many elders in Western Apache communities, such every bit Cibecue, share this knowledge, younger generations of Western Apache "are ignorant of both placenames and traditional narratives in increasing numbers," which makes engaging in the practice of "speaking with names" incredibly difficult.[5]

Examples [edit]

  • Hat' ii baa nadaa? – What are you doing?/What are y'all decorated with?[11]
  • Shiyoo' baa nashaa. – I am doing my beading.[11]
  • Doo shaa nadaa da. – Don't bother me.[11]
  • Naa naghaa. – S/he is bothering you[xi]

Revitalization efforts [edit]

Western Apache is an endangered language, and there are efforts to increase the number of speakers.[11] One method of teaching Western Apache is the Total Physical Response (TPR) Method,[11] which focuses, especially in early instruction, on commands.[eleven] That method is best for pedagogy the straightforward aspects of grammar, such as yeah-and-no questions, and tin be enhanced with further grammatical exercises.[11]

References [edit]

  1. ^ "Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English".
  2. ^ "Did you know Western Apache is threatened?". Endangered Languages . Retrieved 2017-02-10 .
  3. ^ Rambler, Sandra (2011-11-09). "Arizona Silver Belt Tribe focuses on preservation of Apache language". Arizona Silverish Belt . Retrieved 2012-12-02 .
  4. ^ 'Testimony of Mary Kim Titla:Reclaiming our Image and Identity for the next Vii Generations,' Senate Commission on Indian Affairs,' Nov 29, 2012.
  5. ^ a b c d due east f chiliad h i j Basso, Keith H. (1 Jan 1988). ""Speaking with Names": Language and Mural among the Western Apache". Cultural Anthropology. 3 (2): 99–130. doi:ten.1525/tin.1988.3.2.02a00010. JSTOR 656347.
  6. ^ Basso, Keith H. (1996). Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and linguistic communication among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. pp. 46–48.
  7. ^ a b Basso, Keith H. (1 January 1968). "The Western Apache Classificatory Verb System: A Formal Analysis". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 24 (iii): 252–266. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.24.3.3629347. JSTOR 3629347. S2CID 61552001.
  8. ^ a b Basso, KH; Anderson, North (1973). "A Western apache writing system: the symbols of silas john". Scientific discipline. 180 (4090): 1013–22. Bibcode:1973Sci...180.1013B. doi:ten.1126/science.180.4090.1013. PMID 17806568. S2CID 144517844.
  9. ^ Gordon, Matthew; Potter, Brian; Dawson, John; de Reuse, Willem; Ladefoged, Peter (2001). "Phonetic Structures of Western Apache". International Journal of American Linguistics. 67 (iv): 415–448. doi:ten.1086/466470. ISSN 0020-7071. JSTOR 1265755. S2CID 143550122.
  10. ^ a b c d e Basso, Keith H.; Anderson, Ned (1973-01-01). "A Western Apache Writing System: The Symbols of Silas John". Science. 180 (4090): 1013–1022. Bibcode:1973Sci...180.1013B. doi:10.1126/science.180.4090.1013. JSTOR 1736310. PMID 17806568. S2CID 144517844.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h J., de Reuse, Willem (1997). "Problems in Language Textbook Development: The Case of Western Apache".

Bibliography [edit]

Language teaching [edit]

  • Arizona State University & American Indian Language Development Found. (1983). Nohwiyati' [Our linguistic communication]. SIL.
  • Bunney, Curtis. (1974). Nnee baa nadaagoni' [Apache stories]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District.
  • Bunney, Curtis. (1974). Oshii bigonsh'aa. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District.
  • Bunney, Curtis. (northward.d.). Apache Workbook 50: Oshii bigonsh'aa. San Carlos, AZ: Rice Schoolhouse District.
  • Bunney, Curtis. (northward.d.). Nnee dii one thousand'ehgo daagoląąni'. San Carlos, AZ: Rice Schoolhouse District.
  • Bunney, Curtis. (n.d.). The Lilliputian Red Hen (and other stories): Chaghashe bi nagoni'e. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School Commune.
  • Bunney, Curtis, and Crowder, Jack. (1972). Western Apache Series. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School Commune. [20 booklets].
  • Crowder, Jack Fifty. (1972). The cactus boy: Hosh nteelé ishkiin. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack Fifty. (1972). Chagháshé táági [The 3 children]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. twenty.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Da'ónjii nadaagohilnéhé [We read we play]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. twenty.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Doo hant'é dalke' da. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack Fifty. (1972). Gosh'ii: Shíí Mary nshlii: Gosh'ii. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School Commune No. twenty.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Haigo: Zas naláá. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Idiists'ag, gosh'ii: [I hear, I see]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School Commune No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack 50. (1972). Kih nagodenk'áá: Kih diltli'. San Carlos, AZ: Rice Schoolhouse District No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Mary hik'e tl'oh bilgo. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School Commune No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Nnee kéhgo onltag bigonláa [Learn to count in Apache]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack Fifty. (1972). Shíí nnee nshlii. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. twenty.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Shíígo shil nlt'éé. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. twenty.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Shiyo' tséé dotl'izhi alzáa [Mary's peridot necklace]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice Schoolhouse District No. twenty.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). Stephen hik'due east na'inniihí [Stephen and the airplane]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. xx.
  • Crowder, Jack 50. (1972). Tahbiyú [Early morning time]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School Commune No. xx.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972) Tl'oh tú yidlaa. San Carlos, AZ: Rice Schoolhouse District No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack 50. (1972). Tulgayé ligayi: Tulagayé bijaa igodi [The white donkey]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). The wild fauna: Itsá. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School Commune No. 20.
  • Crowder, Jack L. (1972). [Apache language readers]. San Carlos, AZ.
  • Edgerton, Faye E.; & Hill, Faith. (1958). Primer, (Vols. 1–2). Glendale, AZ.
  • Goode, Phillip. (1985). Apache language class and lesson plans for Globe Loftier School: Grades 9–12. [Unpublished manuscript].
  • Goode, Phillip. (1996). Total physical response sentences from Asher (1982) translated into San Carlos Apache, with commentary by Willem J. de Reuse. [Unpublished manuscript].
  • Hunn, E. S. (north.d). Western Apache Language and Culture (Book). Ethnohistory, 38(4), 463.* Johnson, James B.; Lavender, Bonnie; Malone, Beverley; Bead, Christina; & Clawson, Back-scratch. (n.d.). Yati' nakih [Two languages]: Kindergarten bi naltsoos choh [Kindergarten's big volume]. Title 7 Bilingual Education Program Kindergarten Curriculum Manual. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mount Apache Tribe.
  • Malone, Wesley; Malone, Beverly; & Quintero, Canyon Z. (1983). New keys to reading and writing Apache, (rev. ed.). Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Civilization Center.
  • Nevins, T. J., & Eleanor Nevins, M. (2013). Speaking in the mirror of the other: Dialectics of intersubjectivity and temporality in Western Apache discourse. Language And Communication, 33292-306.
  • Perry, Edgar. (1989). Apache pic dictionary. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Civilization Heart.
  • Perry, Edgar; & Quintero, Canyon Z. (1972). Now attempt reading these. Fort Apache, AZ: Apache Culture Centre.
  • Quintero, Canyon Z. (1972). Keys to reading Apache. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Civilisation Heart.
  • de Reuse, Willem J. (2006). A applied grammar of the San Carlos Apache linguistic communication. LINCOM Studies in Native American Linguistics 51. LINCOM. ISBN iii-89586-861-2.
  • de Reuse, Willem J.; & Adley-SantaMaria, Bernadette. (1996). Ndee biyáti' bígoch'il'aah [Learning Apache]: An introductory textbook in the White Mountain Apache linguistic communication for non-speakers. [Unpublished manuscript].
  • de Reuse, Willem J.; & Goode, Phillip. (1996). Nnee biyati' yánlti'go [Speak Apache]: An introductory textbook in the San Carlos Apache language for non-speakers. [Unpublished manuscript].
  • Steele, Lola; Smith, Dorothy; & Bunney, Curtis. (n.d.). Nnee Díí Kehgo Daagolii' ni' [Apaches used to live this way]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice Schoolhouse District No. 20.
  • Steele, Lola; Smith, Dorothy; & Bunney, Curtis. (n.d.). Oshíí bígonsh'aa [I learn to read]. San Carlos, AZ: Rice School District No. 20.
  • Uplegger, Francis J. (1966). Red human and white man in harmony: Songs in Apache and English language. San Carlos, AZ: Lutheran Indian Mission.
  • White Mountain Apache Civilisation Center. (1972). Apache months. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mount Apache Culture Center.
  • White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1972). Apache plants. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Civilisation Center.
  • White Mount Apache Culture Center. (1972). Keys to reading and writing Apache. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Civilisation Center.
  • White Mount Apache Culture Centre. (1972). Writing Apache. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.
  • Wycliffe Bible Translators. (1900). Apache reader.

Literature and dictionaries [edit]

  • Basso, Grand. H. (1968). The Western Apache Classificatory Verb Organization: A Formal Analysis. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, (3). 252.
  • Basso, 1000. H., & Anderson, Northward. (1973). A Western Apache Writing System: The Symbols of Silas John. Science, (4090). 1013.
  • Basso, Keith H. (1979). Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29593-9.
  • Basso, Keith H. (1990). Western Apache language and civilization: Essays in linguistic anthropology. Tucson: University of Arizona Printing. ISBN 0-8165-1323-6.
  • Basso, Keith H. (1996). Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and linguistic communication among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New United mexican states Press. ISBN 0-8263-1724-iii.
  • Bourke, John G.; & Condie, Carole J. (1990). Vocabulary of the Apache or 'Indé language of Arizona and New United mexican states. Occasional publications in anthropology: Linguistic series, (no. 7). Greenley, CO: Museum of Anthropology, University of Northern Colorado.
  • Bray, Dorothy, & White Mountain Apache Tribe. (1998). Western Apache-English dictionary: A community-generated bilingual dictionary. Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Printing. ISBN 0-927534-79-7.
  • De Reuse, W. J. (1997). Issues in Linguistic communication Textbook Evolution: The Case of Western Apache.
  • Goddard, Pliny Eastward. (1918). Myths and tales from the San Carlos Apache. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Office i). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
  • Goddard, Pliny East. (1919). Myths and tales from the White Mount Apache. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part ii). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
  • Goddard, Pliny E. (1919). San Carlos Apache texts. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part iii). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
  • Goddard, Pliny East. (1920). White Mountain Apache texts. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 4). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
  • Gordon, Matthew; Potter, Brian; Dawson, John; de Reuse, Willem; Ladefoged, Peter (2001). "Phonetic structures of Western Apache". International Journal of American Linguistics. 67 (4): 415–481. CiteSeerXx.1.1.233.1904. doi:ten.1086/466470. S2CID 143550122.
  • Perry, Edgar. (1972). Western Apache dictionary. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Middle.
  • Plocher, Johannes & Eilers, Herman. (1893). English Apache dictionary: Containing a vocabulary of the San Carlos Apache, also some White Mount. terms, and many sentences illustrating the use of the words. [Unpublished manuscript].
  • Uplegger, Francis J. (1899–1964). Papers. [unpublished material].
  • Uplegger, Francis J. (1900). Apache dictionary. [unpublished].
  • Uplegger, Francis J. (1911). My life, how should it proceed. San Carlos, AZ [?]: Evangelical Lutheran Mission.
  • Uplegger, Francis J. (1940–1960). Apache language songbook. [unpublished archival material].

External links [edit]

  • Simplified Apache Pronunciation at the Wayback Machine (archived Oct 28, 2009)
  • Issues in Language Textbook Development: The Case of Western Apache
  • White Mountain Apache Language: Problems in Language Shift, Textbook Development, and Native Speaker-University Collaboration
  • Western Apache vocabulary word list
  • Western Apache alphabet and pronunciation
  • Apache Indian Language

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Apache_language

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